OTR EMERGING DATA
Emerging Data
Effect on you
We think the overlooked opportunity is not simply selling more satellite internet. It is preparing thousands of existing locations to support another mobile network. Investible companies: SpaceX (SPCX), Qualcomm (QCOM), Crown Castle (CCI), American Tower (AMT). These are listed-company exposures to investigate, not recommendations or confirmed lease winners. SpaceX’s public listing and SPCX ticker are confirmed by its issuer and Nasdaq. A possible commercial gain is not a promise of an investment return.
What changed
Most people know Starlink as the internet service that uses satellites in space. But on 4 November, Qualcomm announced a deal with SpaceX to help build something different: an American mobile-phone network using tens of thousands of ground-based 5G sites, with deployment planned from 2027.
The connection we found
Our database connects this to an earlier report from 22 October: SpaceX was exploring access to at least 80,000 existing mobile sites, including discussions involving tower operators such as Crown Castle. The 22 October reporting and the 23 October Singapore publication are compatible. They concern reported discussions, not signed lease awards. Cell sites do not necessarily mean separate towers.
How it could work
Before new subscribers arrive, those sites may need equipment installation, electrical work, fibre connections, inspections and maintenance. A tower owner could potentially earn more rent from the same physical structure. A contractor could win work before the network becomes operational.
What could happen next
The next evidence would be named lease agreements, site orders, supplier qualifications, installation spending and deployment milestones. The network could create paid work before new terrestrial-network subscribers arrive, but that sequence and its profitability remain conditional.
OnTheRice’s Emerging Data
We think the overlooked opportunity is not simply selling more satellite internet. It is preparing thousands of existing locations to support another mobile network.
These are listed-company exposures to investigate, not recommendations or confirmed lease winners. SpaceX’s public listing and SPCX ticker are confirmed by its issuer and Nasdaq. A possible commercial gain is not a promise of an investment return.
Research context
Publication and review times
Published
Research review No fixed date
Key points
Most people know Starlink as the internet service that uses satellites in space.
But on 4 November, Qualcomm announced a deal with SpaceX to help build something different: an American mobile-phone network using tens of thousands of ground-based 5G sites, with deployment planned from 2027.
Bottom line
Starlink’s planned American phone network could create work for ground-site owners and contractors before subscriber revenue arrives.
This is research and interpretation, not an investment price forecast. Source verification limits are listed below.
Evidence and sources
Review the information supporting this view and the limits on what it can show.
Material claims and sources
Claim sources 1
- Claim id
C1
- Material claim
On 4 November 2026, Qualcomm announced a multi-year agreement to supply Dragonwing cellular-infrastructure platforms and software for Starlink Mobile’s planned US terrestrial 5G network.
- Kind
fact
- Supporting source links
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
Official Qualcomm release confirms selection and agreement. Exact original clock unavailable; date-only. Contract value, profit and guaranteed site volumes are undisclosed.
Claim sources 2
- Claim id
C2
- Material claim
SpaceX plans for nationwide US deployment rollout to begin in 2027, with tens of thousands of sites deployed over the multi-year agreement.
- Kind
fact
- Supporting source links
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
This is a verified statement of the company’s plan, not a verified future completion or a commitment to finish nationwide coverage in 2027.
Claim sources 3
- Claim id
C3
- Material claim
Public reporting on 22 October 2026 said SpaceX was discussing access to at least 80,000 US cell sites, including talks involving Crown Castle.
- Kind
fact
- Original publication time status
verified
- Source limit
Reuters syndication clock is 22 October 23:01 UTC. Reporting is attributed to Bloomberg’s unnamed sources; neither signed awards nor acquisition of 80,000 towers is established. The private negotiations’ start time is unknown.
Claim sources 4
- Claim id
C4
- Material claim
The Business Times published the tower-discussion report on 23 October 2026 at 09:34 SGT, after reporting had appeared on 22 October UTC.
- Kind
fact
- Original publication time status
verified
- Source limit
The two dates are compatible, not competing event dates. The Business Times’s original and modified information describing the data clocks are distinct. Do not substitute its syndication clock for Bloomberg’s first report.
Claim sources 5
- Claim id
C5
- Material claim
SpaceX Class A common stock is publicly listed as SPCX; its issuer confirms trading began on Nasdaq Global Select Market and Nasdaq Texas on 12 June 2026.
- Kind
fact
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
Issuer and exchange evidence checked. The issuer release is dated 15 June and Nasdaq support from other evidence 26 June; exact release clocks unavailable. No live share price, valuation or return is asserted.
Claim sources 6
- Claim id
C6
- Material claim
The relevant listed companies are Qualcomm (QCOM), Crown Castle (CCI), American Tower (AMT), AT&T (T), Verizon (VZ) and T-Mobile US (TMUS).
- Kind
fact
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
Issuer evidence verifies company identities and tickers. The list is exposure research, not an assertion that every company benefits or has a new Starlink contract. The first listed source is undated.
Claim sources 7
- Claim id
C7
- Material claim
A new tenant could add rent to an existing site, while installation, power, fibre, inspection and maintenance work could occur before a new terrestrial network earns subscriber revenue.
- Kind
inference
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
Procurement-sequence inference. Site suitability, lease terms, approvals, the chosen network design and actual purchase orders determine whether work occurs. No contractor or incremental rent has been confirmed.
Claim sources 8
- Claim id
C8
- Material claim
If Starlink Mobile becomes a meaningful competitor, AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile may face changes in pricing or network-investment plans.
- Kind
scenario
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
A conditional effect, not an observed loss of customers or profit. Incumbents can also partner, respond competitively or retain advantages; an agreement alone does not establish network success.
Claim sources 9
- Claim id
C9
- Material claim
More reliable connectivity could eventually help rural businesses, delivery operations and customers currently facing poor coverage.
- Kind
scenario
- Supporting source links
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
Dependent on deployed coverage, working devices, affordability and service performance. The company’s ambition does not establish measured reliability or customer outcomes.
Claim sources 10
- Claim id
C10
- Material claim
The public cellmapper discussion shows interest in the proposed network and debates site access and installation work, but does not prove a lease.
- Kind
fact
- Supporting source links
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
Neither participant expertise nor representativeness is verified. The title and opening post overstate the deal status. The supplied 23 October date and absolute original clock remain unverified.
Claim sources 11
- Claim id
C11
- Material claim
- Kind
recommendation
- Original publication time status
unavailable
- Source limit
Preparation recommendation, not a claim that registration is open or that work or returns are guaranteed. Check official procurement channels, qualification, costs and payment terms first.
Evidence behind this view
Recorded connection
Our database connects this to an earlier report from 22 October: SpaceX was exploring access to at least 80,000 existing mobile sites, including discussions involving tower operators such as Crown Castle.
The 22 October reporting and the 23 October Singapore publication are compatible. They concern reported discussions, not signed lease awards.
Cell sites do not necessarily mean separate towers.
We have not established a separate count of independent evidence clusters for this card. Several reports may rely on the same event or data provider.
Source ledger
Source references in the research point to these original reports.
| Reference | Source | Publication and retrieval |
|---|---|---|
| S1 | SpaceX Selects Qualcomm to Accelerate Starlink Mobile’s Nationwide 5G Network Qualcomm Official release dated 4 November 2026, date-only; no exact original publication clock was recovered. Confirms selected platforms, a multi-year agreement, tens of thousands of sites and planned rollout beginning in 2027. It does not disclose contract value, guaranteed minimum volumes, margins, lease awards or a completed network. Qualcomm announced the agreement, with a quoted Starlink executive. · Official Qualcomm release confirms selection and agreement. Exact original clock unavailable; date-only. Contract value, profit and guaranteed site volumes are undisclosed. · This is a verified statement of the company’s plan, not a verified future completion or a commitment to finish nationwide coverage in 2027. · Procurement-sequence inference. Site suitability, lease terms, approvals, the chosen network design and actual purchase orders determine whether work occurs. No contractor or incremental rent has been confirmed. · A conditional effect, not an observed loss of customers or profit. Incumbents can also partner, respond competitively or retain advantages; an agreement alone does not establish network success. · Dependent on deployed coverage, working devices, affordability and service performance. The company’s ambition does not establish measured reliability or customer outcomes. | Retrieved: |
| S2 | SpaceX in talks to access 80,000 cell sites for new network The Business Times / Bloomberg Publisher information describing the data explicitly gives 23 October 2026 09:34 SGT, with a three-second-later modification clock. Syndicated Bloomberg reporting relies on unnamed people familiar with negotiations. It names Crown Castle as a company in talks, not a confirmed lease winner. American Tower is named as an industry owner and declined comment. Site access is not purchase of 80,000 towers. Information describing the data was also directly inspected at 2026-11-05T03:24:05.962316Z. | Published: Updated: Retrieved: |
| S3 | SpaceX seeks access to 80,000 US cell sites for wireless network, Bloomberg News reports Reuters via StreetInsider Syndication page displays 22 October 2026 7:01 PM EDT. This verifies that public reporting existed on 22 October UTC, before the Business Times 23 October SGT posting. The timestamp belongs to this Reuters syndication, not the first Bloomberg publication or the start of private negotiations. Reuters attributes the talks to Bloomberg; it is not independent confirmation of signed leases. · Reuters syndication clock is 22 October 23:01 UTC. Reporting is attributed to Bloomberg’s unnamed sources; neither signed awards nor acquisition of 80,000 towers is established. The private negotiations’ start time is unknown. | Published: Retrieved: |
| S4 | Starlink Mobile to acquire 80K towers Reddit / r/cellmapper Public discussion only, not verified professional identities or a representative survey. The supplied new chat dates it 23 October 2026, but the accessible page displayed relative ages and no absolute original clock; that date and exact time were not independently verified. The title and initial post overstate reported talks as acquisition or leasing. They are not evidence that a contract exists. Replies discuss rigging workload, master-lease approval and the distinction between sites and towers. No numerical claims from comments are treated as facts. | Retrieved: |
| S5 | Space Exploration Technologies Corp. Announces Closing of Initial Public Offering, Including Full Exercise of Underwriters’ Option to Purchase Additional Shares SpaceX investor relations Issuer release dated 15 June 2026, date-only; exact release clock unavailable. Explicitly confirms Class A common stock began trading on Nasdaq Global Select Market and Nasdaq Texas on 12 June 2026 under SPCX. This establishes public listing and ticker, not the value or returns of Starlink’s ground-network project. · Issuer and exchange evidence checked. The issuer release is dated 15 June and Nasdaq support from other evidence 26 June; exact release clocks unavailable. No live share price, valuation or return is asserted. | Retrieved: |
| S6 | Space Exploration Technologies Corporation to Join the Nasdaq-100 Index Beginning July 7, 2026 Nasdaq Exchange release dated 26 June 2026, date-only; exact publication clock unavailable. Identifies the company as Nasdaq: SPCX. Used as independent exchange support from other evidence of the issuer’s listing evidence, not as a present price quote or investment recommendation. | Retrieved: |
| S7 | Crown Castle Reports Third Quarter 2026 Results and Updates Outlook for Full Year 2026 Crown Castle investor relations Official page displays 21 October 2026 4:15 PM EDT and NYSE: CCI. Used to verify company identity, tower-rental business and ticker, not to attribute its unnamed customer agreement to SpaceX. An amended financial filing was reported on 4 November; no financial number from the earlier earnings release is used here. | Published: Retrieved: |
| S8 | American Tower Corporation Reports Third Quarter 2026 Financial Results American Tower investor relations Official release dated 27 October 2026, date-only in the accessed body; exact clock unavailable. Confirms NYSE: AMT and an operating tower-leasing business. It does not establish a Starlink lease award. | Retrieved: |
| S9 | Qualcomm investor FAQ Qualcomm investor relations Current issuer search-indexed FAQ explicitly identifies Nasdaq ticker QCOM. Undated reference page; exact original publication time unavailable. Used only for ticker identity, not a market quote. · Issuer evidence verifies company identities and tickers. The list is exposure research, not an assertion that every company benefits or has a new Starlink contract. The first listed source is undated. | Retrieved: |
| S10 | AT&T to Release Third-Quarter 2026 Earnings on Oct. 21 AT&T Current issuer search-indexed announcement identifies NYSE: T. Original absolute publication clock was not recovered. Used only for company and ticker identity, not any claim about Starlink’s eventual competitive impact. | Retrieved: |
| S11 | Verizon Fact Sheet Verizon Current issuer search-indexed fact sheet identifies NYSE and Nasdaq: VZ. Undated reference page; exact original publication time unavailable. Used only for company and ticker identity, not a price quote. | Retrieved: |
| S12 | T-Mobile Delivers Strong Account and ARPA Growth, Translating into Industry-Leading Service Revenue, Profitability and EPS Growth T-Mobile Issuer search-indexed Q3 2026 release identifies Nasdaq: TMUS. Dated 28 October 2026 in the issuer investor release, but no timezone-qualified original clock was recovered here. Used for company and ticker identity; it does not demonstrate losses caused by Starlink. | Retrieved: |
Consequences and economics
Follow how this part of the research connects to the wider idea, including its limits.
Who this affects
- Intended audience
US tower owners, telecommunications contractors, equipment and power or fibre suppliers, and investors researching the companies involved.
- Geography
The planned terrestrial rollout concerns the United States. Listed-company exposure can be international, but the announced deployment and reported site target are US-specific.
- Who gains summary
Qualcomm has a confirmed supply agreement. Crown Castle, American Tower and qualified installation, power or fibre contractors are potential exposures, not confirmed winners of new Starlink site awards.
- Who may lose summary
AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile could face stronger competition if a reliable, attractive new network launches. Contractors can lose money on preparation, delayed payments or unprofitable bids; incumbent companies can also cooperate or adapt.
- When this could matter
Supplier qualification and procurement preparation can begin before rollout. Qualcomm says deployment is planned to begin in 2027 and continue over multiple years, not be completed nationally in 2027.
Calculation and commercial economics
- Assessment status
qualitative
- How it could happen
A tower owner could potentially earn more rent from the same physical structure. A contractor could win work before the network becomes operational.
- Path to revenue or cash flow
Executed site lease → site preparation and equipment orders → permitted installation and acceptance → rent and supplier payments under the actual contract. Qualcomm can earn revenue from the announced platform supply agreement as contractual obligations are met. The sequence of cash receipts depends on deposits, milestone terms and acceptance; it is not established by the announcement.
- Timing
Planning and qualification can precede 2027. Orders, rent commencement and payments depend on the multi-year rollout and separately signed site agreements.
- How large the effect could be
Investible companies: SpaceX (SPCX), Qualcomm (QCOM), Crown Castle (CCI), American Tower (AMT). SpaceX bears network investment costs and may earn later service revenue; Qualcomm has the verified supply relationship; CCI and AMT are conditional tower exposures. AT&T (T), Verizon (VZ) and T-Mobile (TMUS) are incumbent competitive exposures. No contract value, supplier allocation or company-level earnings contribution is verified.
- What the valuation already reflects
The tower story was already public in October and reporting described a market response; potential growth need not mean an attractive share price.
- Assumptions
Assumptions 1
- Assumption
The rollout proceeds and needs third-party site access and services.
- Basis
Qualcomm confirms the network plan; October reporting describes negotiations, not completed leases.
- Supporting claim IDs
C1
C2
C3
Assumptions 2
- Assumption
Selected sites support the equipment and can obtain approvals, power and suitable backhaul.
- Basis
Site-preparation mechanism, not a completed engineering survey or named procurement award.
- Supporting claim IDs
C7
Assumptions 3
- Assumption
Contract revenue exceeds labour, materials, financing, insurance and upgrade costs and is collected on time.
- Basis
Commercial condition for profit; unit prices, margins and payment schedules are undisclosed.
- Supporting claim IDs
C7
- Limits
Do not multiply 80,000 sites by assumed rent or margin. The figure is a reported access target, not awarded sites or unique towers. Qualcomm’s tens-of-thousands deployment scope is a separate announced plan, not verification of an 80,000-lease contract. Company exposure, accounting revenue, cash receipts, operating profit and shareholder returns are different measures.
First-order effects
How this effect would happen
Qualcomm has a confirmed multi-year supply agreement for Starlink Mobile’s planned US terrestrial 5G network, with deployment planned from 2027.
Who would be affected
Party: SpaceX (SPCX) and Qualcomm (QCOM)
Role: Network builder and selected infrastructure-platform supplier
SpaceX progresses a terrestrial network plan; Qualcomm gains the announced supply relationship.
Timing
Time horizon: Rollout planned to begin in 2027 over multiple years
Trigger: Equipment procurement and deployment proceed under the agreement
What remains uncertain
No disclosed contract value, minimum volume, profit or completed national network.
What would confirm this effect
Contracted deliveries and documented deployment milestones.
What would disprove this effect
The arrangement is cancelled or deployment materially fails to proceed.
Indirect effects
How this effect would happen
Tower owners gain potential tenants. Crown Castle (CCI) and American Tower (AMT) are companies to examine. Neither is confirmed as a winner of new Starlink leases.
Who would be affected
Party: Crown Castle (CCI), American Tower (AMT) and other site owners
Role: Potential landlords
Additional rent is possible if sites are selected and leases begin.
Timing
Time horizon: Before and during the multi-year rollout
Trigger: Executed site leases and site readiness
What remains uncertain
Crown Castle was named in reported talks; American Tower was identified as a major owner, not confirmed as a participant or winner. 80,000 sites are not 80,000 awarded towers.
What would confirm this effect
Named leases with site counts, rent commencement and disclosed economic terms.
What would disprove this effect
No relevant leases are signed, different owners are chosen, or added costs offset rent.
Third-order effects
How this effect would happen
Installation and equipment demand may increase. Qualcomm (QCOM) has a confirmed supply agreement; power and fibre contractors could gain separate work.
Who would be affected
Party: Qualcomm (QCOM), installation contractors, electrical and fibre providers
Role: Selected technology supplier and possible site-preparation suppliers
Possible equipment and service revenue before the network operates.
Timing
Time horizon: Procurement and construction before and during site activation
Trigger: Funded equipment and installation orders
What remains uncertain
Only Qualcomm’s relationship is confirmed. Contractor names, work packages, profit, timing and cash collection are unknown.
What would confirm this effect
Named funded orders, completed work, accepted equipment and payment receipts.
What would disprove this effect
Work is delayed, kept in-house, awarded elsewhere or uneconomic.
Fourth-order effects
How this effect would happen
Competition could intensify for AT&T (T), Verizon (VZ) and T-Mobile (TMUS), potentially changing mobile prices and network-investment plans.
Who would be affected
Party: AT&T (T), Verizon (VZ), T-Mobile US (TMUS), SpaceX (SPCX) and mobile customers
Role: Incumbent carriers, new entrant and service buyers
Possible pricing, investment or partnership responses.
Timing
Time horizon: As a competitive service becomes available, potentially over multiple years
Trigger: A working network wins customers or changes credible competitive expectations
What remains uncertain
Changed from “Competition intensifies” to “Competition could intensify” because realised competitive impact is not established. Incumbents can cooperate or maintain advantages.
What would confirm this effect
Documented customer switching, changed prices, investment plans or network partnerships attributable to the new service.
What would disprove this effect
The service does not reach a competitive scale or incumbents see no material effect.
Fifth-order effects
How this effect would happen
Who would be affected
Party: Rural businesses, delivery operators and underserved mobile customers
Role: Potential service users
Possible improvement in usable coverage and completed work.
Evidence and its limits
Evidence limitation:
Timing
Time horizon: After relevant areas receive working, affordable service
Trigger: Deployed coverage, compatible devices and reliable performance
What remains uncertain
No measured reliability or business outcome is verified. Satellite and terrestrial coverage are complementary but not automatically seamless or universal.
What would confirm this effect
Independent field tests and actual users show improved reliability and useful business outcomes.
What would disprove this effect
Coverage, affordability or reliability fails to improve for the intended users.
Action and timing
What to do today
- Specific action
Tower contractors should approach relevant operators about supplier registration and future upgrade programmes. Investors should watch actual lease agreements, site orders and installation spending, not just the announcement.
- Timing
Prepare now through verified procurement channels and reassess when signed awards, funded orders or rollout schedules appear. The announced start is 2027 with a multi-year deployment.
- Costs and practical limits
Registration, qualification, engineering, insurance, travel, equipment and working capital may cost money without winning work. Confirm which official programmes exist and avoid committing resources before the scope, permits, payment stages and cancellation terms are clear.
- When this would not be suitable
The contractor lacks relevant qualifications, access or capacity, cannot carry delayed payment risk, or needs guaranteed near-term orders. An investor seeking a verified earnings forecast or a priced investment recommendation does not have one here.
Challenge and uncertainty
Check the opposing evidence and other explanations that could weaken this view.
What could change this view?
- The winners, rollout pace, contract values and profits remain unproven; existing share prices may already reflect expectations.
Evidence against this view
Recorded opposing evidence and risks
Counter-evidence and limits
- Existing reporting check
A bounded public OTR check found substantive overlap with “Starlink’s mobile future still needs a foothold on Earth,” first published 18 October 2026 07:28 SGT, which already connects satellite reach to towers, fibre and network agreements. A separate indexed listing also names an earlier “American Tower: Network plans take time to become rent” card, but its full body was not recovered in this check.
The new Signal preserves the new research’s connection and adds the confirmed 4 November Qualcomm agreement, stated 2027 rollout and October site-access reporting. Treat it as a development of a known connection, not a wholly new discovery. No full historical duplicate audit or first-discovery claim is made.
- What would support this view
What would support this view 1
- Condition
The planned network produces external site and contractor work.
- Observable
Named executed leases, funded purchase orders and permitted installation milestones tied to the rollout.
- Supporting claim IDs
C1
C2
C3
C7
What would support this view 2
- Condition
The selected suppliers earn profitable, collectible revenue.
- Observable
Reported rent commencement, accepted equipment or work, and payments that cover delivery and financing costs.
- Supporting claim IDs
C7
- Counter-evidence summary
No new Starlink lease award for Crown Castle or American Tower is verified. An announced supply relationship does not establish a completed nationwide network, viable service economics or supplier margins. Existing networks, available site capacity, permits, financing and the chosen build strategy can change the outcome.
- Counter-evidence
Counter-evidence 1
- Material claim
The 80,000-site report concerns negotiations rather than awarded towers.
- Supporting claim IDs
C3
C4
- Implication
Do not book the target as contracted rental revenue or give any tower company the full volume.
Counter-evidence 2
- Material claim
The rollout is planned to start in 2027 over multiple years.
- Supporting claim IDs
C2
- Implication
Meaningful cash receipts or customer benefits can take longer and depend on milestones.
Counter-evidence 3
- Material claim
Public Reddit discussion overstates talks as acquisition or leasing.
- Supporting claim IDs
C10
- Implication
Use it only to show discussion and questions, never as contract evidence.
- Alternative explanations
SpaceX could use existing network agreements, acquire access through a different owner or alter its rollout design. Contractors may serve incumbent upgrade programmes instead. Investors can wait for disclosures that identify actual revenue and costs.
- Other explanations to test
Other explanations to test 1
- Explanation
Cooperation with established network owners can complement a new terrestrial build rather than require replacing every existing network.
- Supporting claim IDs
C3
Other explanations to test 2
- Explanation
Site preparation may be supplied internally or by incumbent contractors, leaving less work for new entrants.
- Supporting claim IDs
C7
- What would prove this wrong
The supplier thesis weakens if the rollout is materially reduced or delayed, the proposed site-access arrangements do not become paid contracts, or contract economics fail to cover costs.
- Conditions that would disprove the thesis
Conditions that would disprove the thesis 1
- Condition
The terrestrial plan does not create the anticipated external orders.
- Observable
Cancelled or persistently deferred rollout, no signed site access, or a design that materially reduces the required third-party work.
- Supporting claim IDs
C2
C3
C7
Conditions that would disprove the thesis 2
- Condition
Additional activity does not create profitable cash flow.
- Observable
Unpaid receivables, uneconomic pricing, higher upgrade costs or offsetting losses that outweigh the new business.
- Supporting claim IDs
C7
- What the sources actually establish
The Qualcomm announcement establishes agreement and plans, not future delivery. The October tower story is Bloomberg reporting, with Reuters and the Business Times carrying that source family rather than independent contract confirmations. Dates and clocks refer to publication, not private negotiations or future deployment. Qualcomm and several issuer sources are date-only or undated, so no midnight timestamp is invented. Reddit’s supplied October date and absolute clock remain unverified.
The OTR overlap check used indexed public content where direct opening failed and is not exhaustive. No contract value, contractor award, demonstrated incremental profit, investment return or measured customer reliability is established.